Black people Essay

THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF RACE/ETHNICITY IN THE FILM GLORY ROAD Race and Ethnicity have been socially constructed to pertain to certain qualities and attributes that have been generalized to the entire race or ethnic group. A few such constructions may include a belief that Asian people are smart yet physically small, Africans are physically blessed while not as mentally gifted and that white people are somewhere between the two. It is also socially constructed that Muslims are angrier people and that Hindus are strictly cultural. These attributes based on ethnicity and race have been falsely constructed by the society due to roles adopted or forced upon by these various social groups based on historic events. I have chosen to depict the race and ethnic construction in a 20th century American society through the movie Glory Road. Glory Road is a movie based on a true story that revolves around the difficulties and hardships faced by the basketball team of the Texas Western University. The movie shows how the team was a victim of an extremely harsh form of racism. It follows the story of a coach named Don Haskins who is responsible for recruiting a team of African-American players in addition to the existing ‘white’ players to play for the University team. In this movie, it has been clearly shown that African-American students, or ‘negro’ students as they are referred to in the movie are looked down upon by the society consisting of a majority of ‘white’ people. The white people believe themselves to be superior to the blacks and thereby treat them with extreme hostility. This was a continuation of the racial inequality that stemmed from the system of slavery in America. As the team of ‘negro’ players begins to gain popularity, the dissent in the dominantly white society escalates rapidly. Hostile crowds receive the team as they travel across the country playing basketball. These crowds throw things at them, vandalize their motel rooms with blood smeared walls and even go to the extent of brutally hurting one of the ‘negros’ when he goes to a restroom. It can be understood, that the negro player has been socially constructed to be inferior simply due to their ethnicity. They are believed to be less intelligent and are even compared to monkeys by a rival coach in the movie. However, due to the recent success of this dominantly black team, the whites begin to feel inferior to them and thereby retaliate physically through violence. The plot of the movie is created due to a break in the conventional social construction that the basketball team of a University is comprised of white students. White students who were trained by a white coach and studied in a University filled with white students. This was the norm that was being challenged by the coach Don Haskins who simply wanted to give these ‘negro’ students an opportunity to receive an education. Racial inequality in the education system is depicted in the movie through scenes that emphasize a majority of college students being white and the surprise on their faces when they see a black student in their school. Forms of personal racism are also shown in the movie such as stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination. Members of the board for Texas Western even exhibited quiet racism. They did not outwardly show their discontent for coach Haskins’ movement but they did feel uneasy about it. However, their uneasy feelings began to change when they heard of the team’s success, which leads us to believe that they were racist only for as long a time period as there was no direct benefit to them as individuals. The competing social construction would be one in which there was no differentiation based on the race/ethnicity of the players belonging to the team. It would be a construction where the blacks were not suppressed and thought to be inferior to whites. I believe that an example of a competing social construction would probably be the construction of our society today, where students are not discriminated based on their ethnicity but are encouraged to participate and selected based on their individual skills and talents. The potrayals in the movie directly correspond to the norms of our present day where people believe African Americans to be more athletically inclined but less intelligent than white people. This norm is harmful and beneficial to both parties. It means that a black person is more like to be hired for an athletic position but less likely for a working job and the exact opposite for a white person. Studies in the present day have indicated that a black person is only 33% as likely as a white person to get a job even if they both apply with identical credentials. It has been shown that the unemployment of black people is twice as high as that of white people (Newman, 166). The times are rapidly changing. Movies such as glory road bring to light the inhumanity that has been dominant in societies of the past that lead to discomfort and a hostile environment. People are more aware of things such as an abolition of discrimination and a promotion of equality as they aim towards times of peace. History was made in 2008, when a man of black origin was made President of the same country in which blacks were hated just a few decades ago. The name of this man was President Barack Obama. It represented a transition to a time with more equality and less racial discrimination. These are direct results of the efforts of movies such as glory road and also the efforts of various activists through the generations. Even though race and ethnicity were socially constructed, the norms are beginning to change in our modern world where every person is given an equal opportunity to achieve the goals they dream of.

The Study of English Reading Strategies for English Majors in Ielts

The Study of English reading strategies for English majors in IELTS English Education Department of College of Foreign Languages Capital Normal University June 2012 Contents I. Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦3 II. Literature Review†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦. 4 2. 1 The definition of reading †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 2. 2 The definition of English reading strategy †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 5 2. 3 The reading test items in IELTS †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 6 2. 4 The English reading strategies in IELTS †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦7 III. Research Methodology†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦7 3. 1 Instruments †¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 3. 2 Research Setting and sampling †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 9 3. 3 Design†¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 9 3. 4 Analyzing Procedures†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦9 IV. Results and Discussion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 10 4. 1 Results †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦10 4. 2 Discussion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦12 V. Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 13 5. 1 Major findings†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦13 5. 2 Implications†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦14 5. 3 Limitations†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 15 5. 4 Future studies†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦15 VI. References†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. â⠂¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦15 Appendix †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 7 I. Introduction 1. Background of the research Nowadays, more and more Chinese students choose to study or travel abroad, so English becomes more and more important. International English Language Testing System (IELTS) is an international standardized test of English language proficiency (Wikipedia, 2011). It becomes one of the most popular exams for those who want to go abroad. In IELTS, reading is the most difficult part for many candidates, because in one hour candidates should finish 3 passages and 40 test items. And most candidates have problems either understanding the subject matter or completing all the sections. Keller, 2010) Even English majors, can not do well in the reading test. They usually lose many scores in readi ng test. Almost every examinee wants to improve their standard of reading. Although they try to use some strategies which were taught by their teachers or trainers, they can’t use these strategies effectively. Many scholars (Li, 2010;Luo, 2010;Shen, 2011;Yao, 2011;Tierney, Robert J. 2000; Readence, John E. , Hosenfeld, Carol, 2003) from home and abroad have noticed that the use of English reading strategies are very important and useful for candidates to do the English reading texts in IELTS.They also find that how to use various strategies effectively. For example, skimming is one of the most frequently used strategies in IELTS. â€Å"Skimming refers to reading a paragraph quickly to get an idea of what it is about, without trying to understand its details. † said by Dr Vivek(2009). 2. Significance of the research Although teachers and trainers have introduced many strategies of English reading, most of the students, even English majors who take the exam of IELTS, alw ays make many mistakes in the reading tests. In fact, many scholars (Li, 2010;Luo, 2010;Shen, 2011;Yao, 2011;Tierney, Robert J. 2000; Readence, John E. Hosenfeld, Carol, 2003) or teachers have already concluded various strategies for English reading test. For example, students or examinees should use the strategy â€Å"skimming† to reading a paragraph or a passage quickly to get an idea of what it is about, without trying to understand its details. However, many students, even English majors, just know the meaning of â€Å"skimming†, but cannot apply this strategy correctly and effectively to their reading test. In addition, because the time is limited, examiners do not have time to use the reading strategies he has learnt. Or maybe they haven’t developed the reading skills in his former study.Therefore, research in this area will be of great significance. This research aims to find out English Majors’ condition and the existing problem in using the readi ng strategies in IELTS. For students and examinees, it will help them to understand the basic meaning of each strategy, to form their own reading skills, and to use various strategies effectively in different kinds of reading test items IELTS and to make less mistakes in the test. 3. Hypothesis This study aims at investigating what the reading strategies are, when they should be used and how to use various strategies effectively.It can provide some suggestions of using reading strategies for English majors to take the exam of IELTS. 4. Research questions †¢ What are the English reading strategies in IELTS for English majors? †¢ When various strategies can be used in different reading test items in IELTS? †¢ How to use various strategies in IELTS reading test effectively? II. Literature Review 2. The definition of reading Far from being a â€Å"passive† skill, reading, is in fact, an active process in which readers relate information in the text to what they alr eady known. Knowledge of language allows readers to identify the printed words and sentences.The purposes of good readers are meaningful that they do not decode each letter or each word. Instead, they take in chunks of the text and relate it to what they know. Traditionally, many psychologists and teachers have insisted that reading is nothing more than decoding writing symbols to sounds. (i. e. figuring out what the printed word says). Others traditionally have insisted that reading involves not only decoding from print to sound, but also comprehending the written material. Forrest-Pressley and Waller (1984) felt that reading is not merely a decoding process nor it is solely a comprehension.Reading process is not just a â€Å"decoding plus comprehension† but reading involves even more. It involves at least three types of skills: decoding, comprehension and nature reading strategies (Forrest-Pressley & Brown, 1984; Brown, 1980). Besides, reading traditionally has been conside red as cognitive task. An unfortunate consequence of such a view of reading is that there has been no room for concern for the â€Å"executive control† that is done by a skilled reader. Only recently have several authors (e. g. Baker Brown, 1984; Brown, 1980; Myers & Pairs, 1928) suggested that reading might involve metacognition as well as cognition.Johnson (1983) has attempted to approach the issue of accessing comprehension from a rational point of view. He first considers what reading comprehension is, and then considers what factors influence it and its assessment— including reader and text characteristics. He comes to a definition of reading comprehension: That is reading comprehension is considered to be a complex behavior, which involves conscious and unconscious uses of various strategies, including problem— solving strategies, to build a model of the meaning, which is assumed to have intended.The model is constructed using schematic knowledge structure s and the various systems, which the writer has given (e. g. words, syntax, macrostructure, social information) to generate hypotheses, which are tested using carious logical and pragmatic strategies. Most of this model must be inferred, since text can never be fully explicit and, in general, very little of it is explicit because even the appropriate intentional and extensional meanings of words must be inferred from their context. (1983). 2. The definition of English reading strategyIt would be helpful to review a concise definition of reading strategies, but unfortunately, there is no consensus among researchers. At least, three problems persist. First, it is not clear how to differentiate reading strategies from other processes that might be called thinking, reasoning, perceptual study or motivational strategies. Weinstein and Mayer (1986) defined cognitive strategies as a broad array of actions that help to control behavior, emotions, motivation, communication, attention, and co mprehension.Although each kind of strategies might influence reading, not all researchers would classify them as reading strategies. A second problem concerns the scope strategies— are they global or specific? Levin (1986) argued that strategies include multiple components that must be carefully analyzed, whereas Derry and Murphy (1986) distinguished strategies as general learning plans that are difficult to demarcate when they are embed in complex sequences of behavior or hierarchies of decision. The third problem involves internationality and consciousness, considering these opposing viewpoints. To be a strategy, the means must be employed deliberately, with some awareness, in order to produce or influence the goal. † (Wellman, 1988) â€Å"Also, it is now recognized that strategies function at its best occurs without deliberation. It is more reflexive than voluntary† (Pressley, Forrest-Pressley & Elliot-Faust, 1988) Since the 1970s there has been no shortage of L2 (Second Language Learning) theorists advocating teaching students to use a variety of reading strategies in order to read better.There strategies run argument form the traditionally recognized reading skills of skimming and scanning, contextual guessing or skipping unknown words, tolerating ambiguity, reading for meaning, critical reading and make inferences, to more recently recognized strategies text structure (Block). Researchers in the L1 (First Language Learning) and L2 fields have demonstrated that strategy used is different in proficient readers. More proficient readers use them in different ways. 2. The reading test items in IELTS †¢ TURE/FALSE/NOT GIVEN †¢ SUMMARY †¢ HEADING MUTILPCHIOCE †¢ COMPLETION †¢ SHORT ANSWER †¢ TABLE †¢ MATCHING In our research, we will focus on the two kinds of reading test items in IELTS: TURE/FALSE/NOT GIVEN and MUTILPCHIOCE. In IELTS, these two kinds of test items are used with high frequency. Many of the examinees in IELTS often make mistakes in these two kinds of test items. Therefore, we will carry out research of reading strategies on these two parts and figure out whether English majors use reading strategies to do these two kinds of test items in IELTS. 2. The English reading strategies in IELTSSearch reading is the strategy likely to be used by candidates to help them find specific information and answer as quickly and accurately as possible in reading examinations. Search reading is defined by Urqhuart and Weir (1998) as the strategy used to locate and comprehend discrete pieces of information on predetermined topics in order to answer a set of questions or provide data. According to the authors, the readers do not necessarily have to start by reading the whole text to get the gist. Moreover, search reading seems to be compatible at different points with scanning, skimming and ‘careful global reading’ (i. . comprehension of the main ideas in the text). That is, t he first step in search reading involves the process of locating (scanning) the words that are noted in a question and matching them to the same or related information in the text. Skimming is then used to select the specific text that seems important to answer the question. Consequently, the text selected will be read more carefully to find out if it definitely answers the question, which means careful global reading will then take place (by reference to the parts of the text selected and not to the whole text, as discussed above).Search reading is also addressed by other authors such as Dreher (1992), Guthrie and Kirsch (1987), Symons and Specht (1994), as well as Enright et al. (2000) specifically in relation to English language reading examinations. III. Research Methodology 1. Instruments In this research, we will use â€Å"individual interview† and â€Å"think aloud† as our research methods. The main advantage of face-to-face or direct interviews is that the rese archer can adapt the questions as necessary, clarify doubt and ensure that the responses are properly understood, by repeating or rephrasing the questions. Peter,2010) The researcher can also pick up nonverbal cues from the respondent. Any discomfort, stress and problems that the respondent experiences can be detected through frowns, nervous taping and other body language, unconsciously exhibited by any person. We will design several questions related to our topic. A notable advantage of think aloud protocols over individual interviews as a data collection method with respect to information behavior is that they are at least able to elicit data at the time of the experience in question and the accuracy of the material contributed will therefore not be affected by lapses in memory. Manguel, 2008) To investigate whether a search reading strategy is used in reading examinations, a questionnaire asked 40 international postgraduate students who had done IELTS which strategies they used w hen reading text and answering questions in the academic reading task. The questionnaire was composed of a single question, which asked participants to choose the steps they followed and to put them in order (as illustrated in Appendix A). These steps were based on the steps recommended for the IELTS reading module (Jakeman & McDowell, 2001), but three steps were added to extend the scope of the questionnaire.Participants reported that they underlined the key words in the questions (23 participants), scanned the passage to find the key words (23 participants) and read the text around the key word carefully after finding it (30 participants). These results, therefore, suggest that the most common strategy used when reading under time pressure in examinations is compatible with search reading (as described at the beginning of this section). Furthermore, it seems that two distinct aspects of selective processing are involved in search reading: perceptual and conceptual processing of te xt.This distinction is based on Masson's (1982, 1985) characterization of cognitive processes in skimming stories. Applying Masson's theory to English language reading examinations, candidates may look for visual features, i. e. key words, in the text relevant to the question, which is a perceptual process. Having located the pertinent information, they then more carefully read the phrases containing the key words so that the answer can be found, accurately comprehended and extracted to answer the question, which is a conceptual process. 2.Research Setting and Sampling We did our research in Capital Normal University. In this research, we chose three English majors to be the interviewees. First, the three interviewees attended the interview one by one. They were asked some questions about English reading strategies. These might help us researchers know more about the interviewees and their knowledge, opinion and recognition of reading strategies. Then, the three interviewees attende d the think-aloud one by one. We researchers chose one piece of IELTS reading passage for the interviewees to finish.During the test, they were asked some questions about the test items and their feelings about reading test while they were doing the test. The whole passage: Search begins for ‘Earth' beyond solar system (shown in the appendix) 3. Design During the interview, we will ask interviewees to answer some questions about reading strategies, such as their recognition of English reading strategies, the usage of reading strategies, the effect of using reading strategies, etc. During the think-aloud, we will give each of them a piece of IELTS reading passage, and ask them to finish all the exercises after the passage.When they are doing the exercise, we will ask them one or two questions of each test item about English reading strategies. 4. Analyzing Procedures Step 1: Select three English majors from the CNU in different levels. Step 2: The three interviewees will be int erviewed individually. Several questions about reading strategies will be asked. Their answer will be record in a excel file. Step 3: The three students will attend the think-aloud interview one by one. During they do the reading test, several designed questions will be asked. Step 4: Collect their answers and compare with each other. | |When did you begin |Will you use reading |Reading strategies can help|Would you like to |How about your | | |Do you know what is reading|to know reading |strategies during reading |you improve your English in|know more about |reading scores? | | |strategies? |strategies? |texts? Please lay out these|which aspects? |reading strategies? | | | | | |by using frequency. | | | | | |Candidate A | |The first question: replace the original words by using the four choices. | |Question 2 – 5: rereading the text, and then finding out the key sentences and translating. | |The first question: using exclusive method to leave out C and D, and then using sca nning. | |Question 2 – 5: using skimming strategy firstly to find out these statements, and then using scanning strategy to get the right | |answers. From the above table, we can find out exclusive method, skimming and scanning are three reading strategies most frequently used by candidates. Usually, when candidates finish multiple choice questions, they would like to use exclusive method to ignore one or two interferential choices. And then they can choose possible answer from rest two choices, so they have 50% opportunity to get right answer. Question 2 to question 5 are true or false questions. Candidates used skimming to find out where are these sentences in the original text.When they focused on one sentence, they will use scanning to search for certain words to figure out whether the statement is true or false or not given. 4. Discussion The purpose of the study was to investigate the condition of English reading strategies for English majors in IELTS. The findings clea rly suggest that most students have learnt and used the strategies in their reading. For the multiple choice items in the IELTS exam, scanning is the most useful strategy. We can find out the relational part of the key words in the item.The students who have learnt the reading strategies outperformed those who didn’t know the reading strategies in every aspect as shown by their performance during the think-aloud part. (The first student and third student have learnt English reading strategies before, while the second student did not know reading strategies before. So he used longer time finishing the same number items but failed in the exam. ) They showed particular strengths in the IELTS reading section, suggesting that the reading strategies they have been taught really help the students to understand and focus on the test of their reading.It also seems to be the case that skimming should become a natural first step to any kind of reading readers do —- articles, book s, newspapers, and even advertisements or bus schedules( , 1999). In the short answer questions part, skimming is becoming more helpful for examinees. Skimming the text means reading very quickly. Just look at the headings, subheadings and the first lines of each section or paragraph. The examinees need to catch the key points of the test in limited time, so skimming can save up much time than reading the test one word after another.Another reason for the benefits of reading strategies may be that scanning is a search for information which is often some specific information ( , 1997). This supports and adds to the findings of Wang Li (2011), who showed similar results for English reading strategies. In the true/false/not given items, scanning can not be more proper than any other strategies. Scanning a text means looking for a specific piece of information or specific words. Ignore the information that is not relevant to your purpose.Scanning is a useful strategy to apply when the q uestions ask for factual information. This study has taken a step in the direction of justifying the effect of English reading strategies for English majors in the IELTS. These reading strategies can not only promote students’ understanding when they do reading exercises, but also improve students’ reading ability. It may be the case that students who do not familiar with the reading strategies may be easily fail the IELTS compared to those who have already learnt and use reading strategies before.It is also not clear whether skimming and scanning are the most useful reading strategies for IELTS, such as note-taking and summary would succeed to the same extent. The approach outlined in this study should be replicated with other students in other classes, as well as at other levels in order to be able to recommend the effect of English reading strategies for IELTS for English majors. V. Conclusion 5. Major findings 1. English reading strategies in IELTS From the whole r esearch, we find that although there are so many reading strategies in reading text, informants use skimming and scanning most frequently.In IELTS reading test, there are 8 types questions — true or false questions, summary, heading, multiple choice, completion, short answer, table and matching, while, scanning and skimming can be used in most kinds of questions. In other words, scanning and skimming are the basic reading strategies in IELTS reading test. 2. The proper way to use various reading strategies in IELTS It is generally believed the first passage is easier than the second and third. Sometimes, however, this doesn't hold true. So, before attempting the passages, informants do an overview to get an idea about the subject matter.Different strategies can be adopted to attempt different passages. These may be skimming and scanning, reading intensively and a hit-and-trial method. In this research, we will just focus on two kinds of reading strategies—-skimming and scanning. The formats of the questions in the IELTS are: multiple choice, gap-fills, short answer questions, matching and true/false/not given. Skimming the text means reading very quickly. Just look at the headings, subheadings and first lines of each section or paragraph. Also notice the key words repeated throughout the text.The main purpose is to understand the gist — the general idea of the text. When you need to give a title of the test, skimming can help you. Also, matching part acquire you to skim the test in a short time. Scanning a text means looking for a specific piece of information or specific words. Ignore the information that is not relevant to your purpose. Scanning is a useful strategy to apply when the questions ask for specific factual information. For example, in the multiple choices, gap-fills, true/false/not given items, scanning can not be more helpful than any other strategies. . Implications As it can be seen in the findings and discussion, English majors do know some English reading strategies while they are doing reading tests. In IELTS, the reading strategies for different kinds of reading test items are various. So this research may help English majors understand more about the English reading strategies for different reading test items in IELTS. They may get higher scores in IELTS after knowing and making full use of the various reading strategies. 5. Limitations In all, the research findings are limited by the very nature of the method used.For example, the interviews are finished only in one university and the interviewees are only three. The data may not be accurately. The study of the English reading strategies and the reading test items in IELTS are limited. We just conduct the research on some of the strategies and two kinds of test items. However, due to the physical condition, time limitation, etc, the limitations cannot be overcome. 5. Further studies In the future, we may focus on the study of the rest kinds of English reading strategies and reading test items.It is believed that reading strategies come to help for students or examinees to take exams. The further studies may be helpful for English majors to do reading tests better in IELTS. VI. References 1. Camboune, B. (2001). Why do some students fail to learn to read? Ockham’s razar and the conditions of learning. The Reading Teacher, 54, (8), 784-786 2. Csaba Csikos and Janos Steklacs, Metacognition-Based Reading Intervention Programs Among Fourth-Grade Hungarian Students, 2010 3. Davis, M. , & Lyons, S. (2001). Improving reading †¦Reading: ideas from two teachers. Voices from the Middle 8, (4), 51-57. . Dr Vivek. (2009) Tips for Reading, IELTS Section AIPPG, Retrieved from http://www. aippg. com/ielts/reading-tips-ielts. html 5. Dr Vivek. (2009) Tips for the Reading Test, IELTS Section AIPPG, Retrieved from http://www. aippg. com/ielts/strategies%20for%20reading. htm 6. Dreher, M. J. (1992). Searching for information in t extbooks. Journal of Reading, 35 (5), 364–371. Web of Science ® Times Cited: 14 7. Enright, M. K. , Grabe, W. , Koda, K. , Mosenthal, P. , Mulcahy-Ernt, P. & Schedl, M. (2000). TOEFL 2000 reading framework: A working paper. TOEFL Monograph Series Report No. 17.Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. 8. Forrest-Presley and Waller (1984) Metacognition About Reading Is Related to Reading Performance: A comment About Jacobs and Paris Educational Psychologist Volume 24, Issue 2, 1989 9. Guthrie, J. T. & Kirsch, I. S. (1987). Distinctions between reading comprehension and locating information in text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79 (3), 220–227. CrossRef,Web of Science ® 10. Hosenfeld, Carol A Preliminary Investigation of the Reading Strategies of Successful and No successful Second Language Learners http://eric. ed. gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini. sp? _nfpb=true=EJ162478=no=EJ162478 11. Hurst,C. O. (2000). Guided reading can strengthen comprehension skil ls. Teaching Pre k-8 31, (2) 70-71 12. Jakeman, V. & McDowell, C. (2001). IELTS practice tests plus: Teaching not just testing. Harlow, Essex: Longman. 13. Johnson, P. (2002). Strategies that work: Teaching comprehension to enhance understanding. Instructor, 111 (8), 30-43 14. Keller, J. M. (2010). IELTS Reading Strategies. Tcyonline. Retrieved from http://www. tcyonline. com/betterthink/ielts-reading-test-strategies 15. Macmilland Dictionary ttp://www. macmillandictionary. com/dictionary/british/IELTS 16. Masson, M. E. J. (1982). Cognitive processes in skimming stories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 8 (5), 400–417. CrossRef,Web of Science ® 17. Masson, M. E. J. (1985). Rapid reading processes and skills. In G. E. MacKinnon & T. G. Waller (Eds. ), Reading research: Advances in theory and practice, Vol. 4. (pp. 183–230). New York: Academic Press. 18. Symons, S. & Specht, J. A. (1994). Including both time and accuracy in defining text search efficiency. Journal of Reading Behavior, 26 (3), 267–276.Web of Science ® Times Cited: 5 19. Tierney, Robert J. ; Readence, John E. Reading Strategies and Practices: A Compendium. Fifth Edition. http://eric. ed. gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini. jsp? _nfpb=true=ED448405=no=ED448405 20. Urqhuart, S. & Weir, C. (1998). Reading in a second language: Process, product and practice. London: Longman. 21. Wikipedia http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/IELTS 22. . (2011) , ,Retrieved from http://bj. xdf. cn/publish/portal24/tab16996/info647081. htm 23. [J]. . 010. 10 24. [J]. ( )2010. 9 25. [J]. ( ). 2011. 7 26. [J]. . 2011. 12 †¢ Appendix 1. Individual Interview Questions: 1. Do you what is reading strategies? 2. When do you begin to learn about reading strategies? 3. , , Do you usually use the reading strategies in doing reading tests? What kind of strategies did you use? Please put them in order according to frequency. 4. Do you think reading strategi es do help in your reading test? And how? 5. , What’s your reading score in the extensive reading? 2. The whole passage: Search begins for ‘Earth' beyond solar system Staff and agencies Wednesday December 27, 2006 Guardian Unlimited 1. A European spacecraft took off today to spearhead the search for another â€Å"Earth† among the stars. 2. The Corot space telescope blasted off aboard a Russian Soyuz rocket from the Baikonur cosmodrome in Kazakhstan shortly after 2. 20pm. 3. Corot, short for convection rotation and planetary transits, is the first instrument capable of finding small rocky planets beyond the solar system.Any such planet situated in the right orbit stands a good chance of having liquid water on its surface, and quite possibly life, although a leading scientist involved in the project said it was unlikely to find â€Å"any little green men†. 4. Developed by the French space agency, CNES, and partnered by the European Space Agency (ESA), Austr ia, Belgium, Germany, Brazil and Spain, Corot will monitor around 120,000 stars with its 27cm telescope from a polar orbit 514 miles above the Earth. Over two and a half years, it will focus on five to six different areas of the sky, measuring the brightness of about 10,000 stars every 512 seconds. . â€Å"At the present moment we are hoping to find out more about the nature of planets around stars which are potential habitats. We are looking at habitable planets, not inhabited planets. We are not going to find any little green men,† Professor Ian Roxburgh, an ESA scientist who has been involved with Corot since its inception, told the BBC Radio 4 Today programme. 6. Prof Roxburgh said it was hoped Corot would find â€Å"rocky planets that could develop an atmosphere and, if they are the right distance from their parent star, they could have water†. 7.To search for planets, the telescope will look for the dimming of starlight caused when an object passes in front of a star, known as a â€Å"transit†. Although it will take more sophisticated space telescopes planned in the next 10 years to confirm the presence of an Earth-like planet with oxygen and liquid water, Corot will let scientists know where to point their lenses. 8. Measurements of minute changes in brightness will enable scientists to detect giant Jupiter-like gas planets as well as small rocky ones. It is the rocky planets – that could be no bigger than about twice the size of the Earth – which will cause the most

Alexei’s love for Polina Essay

Symposium is one of those rare works, in which the debate on what Love is becomes the central subject. Symposium is the written version of the discussion between the principal philosophers of Plato’s time, as for what Love is. According to the Greek mythology, and as Plato puts it, there were supposed to be the two different types of Love – common Love and Noble Love. What is the difference then? ‘What then is Love? ‘ I asked; ‘Is he mortal? ‘ ‘No’. ‘What then? ‘ [†¦] ‘He is a great spirit (daimon) and like all spirits he is intermediate between the divine and the mortal’. ‘And what is his power? ‘ ‘He interprets between gods and men, conveying and taking across to the gods and prayers and sacrifices to men; [†¦] for God mingles not with man; but through Love, all the intercourse and converse of God with man, whether awake or asleep, is carried on’. (Plato, Symposium) Thus, this is the citation in relation to the so-called heavenly love. This love, according to Plato is an honorable feeling and has honorable implications; this love is absolutely derived of any sexual attitudes. However, the philosophers accept the idea that there is another kind of love – earthly (common) love, which is the Love between a man and a woman, and thus includes the signs of sexual attraction, lust, etc. Pausanias in Symposium is the supporter of the idea that common love, despite its earthy character, is still to be driven by virtues; otherwise it is ugly common love. On the other hand, it is also possible to assume that the more virtue the Love has, the more heavenly it becomes. However, there is another interesting thought which we meet reading Symposium: ‘†¦love, Socrates, is not, as you imagine, the love of beautiful only. [†¦] love of generation and birth is in beauty†¦ to the mortal creature generation is a sort of eternity and immortality†¦ and if as has been already admitted, love is of the everlasting possession of good, all men necessarily desire immortality together with good: Wherefore love is of immortality’. (Plato, Symposium) What is meant here is that sexual desire and physical love is part of common love, when it is sincere, for the wish to leave the descendants and make them continue your business and teach them life is what love is meant to do. Thus, lust and sexual desire is not denied in this work; on the opposite, it is accepted as a part of common love, but when it is sincere and is driven by virtues; otherwise, love is deception and ugly. Plato appears to be wise enough to put the talk about Love in the form of debate, coming to the conclusion, that Love can be both common (earthly) and noble (of virtue). In addition, Plato writes that no matter whether Love is Noble or Common, it should be defined by virtues, as love without virtue, or based on deception, is ugly. Plato was one of the first authors to speak about the love between rich and poor, thus including the social aspect into romantic feeling. Alexey’s feeling for Polina in â€Å"The Gambler† by Dostoevsky is rather interesting and worth-analyzing. The girl has higher position in the society than his and he has no hope to win her heart without money. He wins the game, got money and brought it to her. After Polina spends a night with him Alexei forgets about her. What does it mean? Does it mean that he had only a passion for Polina? No, if I was so, he would never have left her after one night. Here the passion to the game appeared to be stronger for the young man. So it was not only a passion, the common Love, that Plato calls it. So what was it? After Alexey’s leaving Polina it seems that he just wanted to win the heart of the rich girl for one night and this was not Love with virtue. However, when Polina found him, young man seemed to wake up, understand everything and wants to recover with love for her. Here we see that Alexey’s love for is really Noble Love full of virtue as he believed that he would be able to change his life and his soul for better being together with his beloved.

The Army and Air Force Exchange Service Research Paper

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Motivation Theory Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

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Art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 7

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Comparative Government Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Comparative Government - Essay Example With more than 400 years since they founded their government, they came at only number 17. Uncle Sam’s other brothers in faith, the United Kingdom and France—both of which have also been established for centuries as Democracies—were only 23 and 24 respectively (Kekic 2). To understand this, one has to take into consideration the reality that â€Å"there are a thousand ways to skin a cat†. Liberal Democracy as a concept has always been debated upon. Even more complicated is the question on how it is to be measured. For the particular study in question, we have to know that it considered five determinants: electoral process and pluralism, civil liberties, the functioning of government, political participation and political culture (Kekic 2). According to the study, â€Å"America falls down on some aspects of Governance and Civil Liberties† (Kekic 6). Problems on lack of Universal Healthcare, the mismanagement of wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, the rise in the unemployment and deficit are domestic problems that the United States currently faces. In terms of respect of Civil Liberties, there has been growing concern on unauthorized wiretapping and torture among prisoners of Guantanamo Bay, in the Government’s War on Terror (â€Å"Renewing America†). The United Kingdom also came at the near bottom of the list given its poor scores on Political Participation, given that it has the lowest voter turn-out in the whole of the developed world. France, on the other hand, tested low for the functioning of government, political participation and political culture (Kekic 6). The problem of political culture has always been present in France given their differences in the differences in values of the people brought about by aspects of religion, geography, class and education 9 (â€Å"French Political Culture†). The case of the United States as well as that of France and the United Kingdom

Developmental Psych Core Questions Essay Example for Free

Developmental Psych Core Questions Essay Core Chapter Learning Objectives for PSY 104 Developmental Psychology 1. Explain the role of theories in understanding human development, and describe three basic issues on which major theories take a stand. (pp. 5–7) 2. Describe recent theoretical perspectives on human development, noting the contributions of major theorists. (pp. 21–26) 3. Identify the stand that each contemporary theory takes on the three basic issues presented earlier in this chapter. (pp. 26, 27) 4. Describe the research methods commonly used to study human development, citing the strengths and limitations of each. (pp. 26–31) 5. Describe three research designs for studying development, and cite the strengths and limitations of each. (pp. 34–38) 6. Discuss ethical issues related to lifespan research. (pp. 39–40) Chapter 2 1. Explain the role and function of genes and how they are transmitted from one generation to the next. (p. 46) 2. Describe the genetic events that determine the sex of the new organism. (pp. 46–47) 3. Identify two types of twins, and explain how each is created. (pp. 47–48) 4. Describe various patterns of genetic inheritance. (pp. 48–52) 5. Describe major chromosomal abnormalities, and explain how they occur. (pp. 52–53) 6. Explain how reproductive procedures can assist prospective parents in having healthy children. (pp. 53–57) 7. Describe the social systems perspective on family functioning, along with aspects of the environment that support family well-being and development. (pp. 59–60) 8. Discuss the impact of socioeconomic status and poverty on family functioning. (pp. 60–63) 9. Summarize the roles of neighborhoods, towns, and cities in the lives of children and adults. (pp. 63–65) 10. Explain how cultural values and pract ices, public policies, and political and economic conditions affect human development. (pp. 65–70) 11. Explain the various ways heredity and environment can influence complex traits. (p. 70) 12. Describe concepts that indicate â€Å"how† heredity and environment work together to influence complex human characteristics. (pp. 72–74) Chapter 3 1. List the three phases of prenatal development, and describe the major milestones of each. (pp. 80–85) 2. Define the term teratogen, and summarize the factors that affect the impact of teratogens on prenatal development. (pp. 85–86) 3. List agents known or suspected of being teratogens, and discuss evidence supporting the harmful impact of each.(pp. 86–93) 4. Discuss other maternal factors that can affect the developing embryo or fetus. (pp. 93–95) 5. Describe the three stages of childbirth. (pp. 96–97) 6. Discuss the baby’s adaptation to labor and delivery, and describe the appearance of the newborn baby. (pp. 97–98) 7. Describe natural childbirth and home delivery, noting the benefits and concerns associated with each. (pp. 99–100) 8. List common medical interventions during childbirth, circumstances that justify their use, and any dangers associated with each. (pp. 100–101) 9. Describe the risks associated with prete rm and small-for-date births, along with factors that help infants who survive a traumatic birth recover. (pp. 101–106) 10. Describe the newborn baby’s reflexes and states of arousal, including sleep characteristics and ways to soothe a crying baby. (pp. 106–111) 11. Describe the newborn baby’s sensory capacities. (pp. 111–113) 12. Explain the usefulness of neonatal behavioral assessment. (pp. 113–114) Chapter 4 1. Describe major changes in body growth over the first 2 years. (pp. 120–121) 2. Summarize changes in brain development during infancy and toddlerhood. (pp. 121–129) 3. Describe the development of the cerebral cortex, and explain the concepts of brain lateralization and brain plasticity (pp. 124–125, 126) 4. Describe how both heredity and early experience contribute to brain organization. (pp. 125, 127–128) 5. Discuss changes in the organization of sleep and wakefulness over the first 2 years. (pp. 128–129) 6. Discuss the nutritional needs of infants and toddlers, the advantages of breastfeeding, and the extent to which chubby babies are at risk for later overweight and obesity. (pp. 130–131) 7. Summarize the impact of severe malnutrition on the development of infants and toddlers, and cite two dietary diseases associated with this condition. (p. 132) 8. Describe the growth disorder known as nonorganic failure to thrive, noting symptoms and family circumstances associated with the disorder. (pp. 132–133) 9. Describe four infant learning capacities, the conditions under which they occur, and the unique value of each. (pp. 133–136) 10. Describe the general course of motor development during the first 2 years, along with factors that influence it. (pp. 137–138) 11. Explain dynamic systems theory of motor development (pp. 138–140) 12. Discuss changes in hearing, depth and pattern perception, and intermodal perception that occur during infancy. (pp. 140–147) 13. Explain differentiation theory of perceptual development. (pp. 147–148) Chapter 5 1. Describe how schemes change over the course of development. (p. 152) 2. Identify Piaget’s six sensorimotor substages, and describe the major cognitive achievements of the sensorimotor stage. (pp. 153–155) 3. Discuss recent research on sensorimotor development, noting its implications for the accuracy of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage. (pp. 155–160) 4. Describe the information-processing view of cognitive development and the general structure of the information-processing system. (pp. 160–162) 5. Cite changes in attention, memory, and categorization during the first 2 years. (pp. 162–165) 6. Describe contributions and limitations of the information-processing approach, and explain how it contributes to our understanding of early cognitive development. (p. 165) 7. Explain how Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal development expands our understanding of early cognitive development. (pp. 165–166, 167) 8. Describe the mental te sting approach and the extent to which infant tests predict later performance. (pp. 166, 168–169) 9. Discuss environmental influences on early mental development, including home, child care, and early intervention for at-risk infants and toddlers. (pp. 169–172) 10. Describe theories of language development, and indicate how much emphasis each places on innate abilities and environmental influences. (pp. 172–174) 11. Describe major milestones of language development in the first 2 years, noting individual differences, and discuss ways in which adults can support infants’ and toddlers’ emerging capacities. (pp. 174–179) Chapter 6 1. Discuss personality changes in the first two stages of Erikson’s psychosocial theory—basic trust versus mistrust and autonomy versus shame and doubt. (pp. 184–185) 2. Describe changes in the expression of happiness, anger and sadness, and fear over the first year, noting the adaptive function of each. (pp. 185–188) 3. Summarize changes during the first two years in understanding others’ emotions and expression of self-conscious emotions. (pp. 188–189) 4. Trace the development of emotional self-regulation during the first 2 years. (pp. 189–190) 5. Describe temperament, and identify the three temperamental styles elaborated by Thomas and Chess. (pp. 190–191) 6. Compare Thomas and Chess’s model of temperament with that of Rothbart. (p. 191) 7. Explain how temperament is assessed, and distinguish inhibited, or shy, children from uninhibited, or sociable, children. (pp. 191–193) 8. Discuss the stability of temperament and the role of heredity and environment in the development of temperamen t. (pp. 193–194) 9. Summarize the goodness-of-fit model. (pp. 194–195) 10. Describe Bowlby’s ethological theory of attachment, and trace the development of attachment during the first two years. (pp. 196–198) 11. Describe the Strange Situation and Attachment Q-Sort procedures for measuring attachment, along with the four patterns of attachment that have been identified using the Strange Situation. (pp. 198–199) 12. Discuss the factors that affect attachment security, including opportunity for attachment, quality of caregiving, infant characteristics, family circumstances, and parents’ internal working models. (pp. 200–202, 203) 13. Discuss fathers’ attachment relationships with their infants, and explain the role of early attachment quality in later development. (pp. 202, 204–205) 14. Describe and interpret the relationship between secure attachment in infancy and later development. (pp. 205–206) 15. Trace the emergence of self-awareness, and explain how it influences early emotional and social dev elopment, categorization of the self, and development of self-control. (pp. 206–209) Chapter 7 1. Describe major trends in body growth during early childhood. (pp. 216–217) 2. Discuss brain development in early childhood, including handedness and changes in the cerebellum, reticular formation, and the corpus callosum. (pp. 217–219) 3. Explain how heredity influences physical growth by controlling the production of hormones. (p. 219) 4. Describe the effects of emotional well-being, nutrition, and infectious disease on physical development. (pp. 219–222) 5. Summarize factors that increase the risk of unintentional injuries, and cite ways childhood injuries can be prevented. (pp. 222–223) 6. Cite major milestones of gross- and fine-motor development in early childhood, including individual and sex differences. (pp. 224–227) 7. Describe advances in mental representation during the preschool years. (pp. 227–229) 8. Describe limitations of preoperational thought, and summarize the implications of recent research for the accuracy of the preoperational stage. (pp. 229–233) 9. Describe educational principles derived from Piaget’s theory. (pp. 233–234) 10. Describe Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s views on the development and sign ificance of children’s private speech, along with related evidence. (pp. 234–235) 11. Discuss applications of Vygotsky’s theory to education, and summarize challenges to his ideas. (pp. 235–237) 12. Describe changes in attention and memory during early childhood. (pp. 237–239) 13. Describe the young child’s theory of mind. (pp. 239–241) 14. Summarize children’s literacy and mathematical knowledge during early childhood. (pp. 241–243) 15. Describe early childhood intelligence tests and the impact of home, educational programs, child care, and media on mental development in early childhood. (pp. 243–248) 16. Trace the development of vocabulary, grammar, and conversational skills in early childhood. (pp. 248–251) Chapter 8 1. Describe Erikson’s stage of initiative versus guilt, noting major personality changes of early childhood. (p. 256) 2. Discuss preschoolers’ self-understanding, including characteristics of self-concepts and the emergence of self-esteem. (pp. 256–258) 3. Cite changes in the understanding and expression of emotion during early childhood, along with factors that influence those changes. (pp. 258–259) 4. Explain how language and temperament contribute to the development of emotional self-regulation during the preschool years. (p. 259) 5. Discuss the development of self-conscious emotions, empathy, sympathy, and prosocial behavior during early childhood, noting the influence of parenting. (pp. 259–261) 6. Describe advances in peer sociability and in friendship in early childhood, along with cultural and parental influences on early peer relations. (pp. 261–264) 7. Compare psychoanalytic, social learning, and cognitive-developmental approaches to moral development, and cite child-rearing practices that support or undermine moral understanding. (pp. 264–269) 8. Describe the development of aggression in early childhood, noting the influences of family and television, and cite strategies for controlling aggressive behavior. (pp. 269–272) 9. Discuss genetic and environmental influences on preschoolers’ gender-stereotyped beliefs and behavior. (pp. 273–276) 10. Describe and evaluate the accuracy of major theories of gender identity, including ways to reduce gender stereotyping in young children. (pp. 276–278) 11. Describe the impact of child-rearing styles on child development, explain why authoritative parenting is effective, and note cultural variations in child-rearing beliefs and practices. (pp. 278–281) 12. Discuss the multiple origins of child maltreatment, its consequences for development, and effective prevention. (pp. 281–283) Chapter 9 1. Describe major trends in body growth during middle childhood. (p. 290) 2. Identify common vision and hearing problems in middle childhood. (p. 291) 3. Describe the causes and consequences of serious nutritional problems in middle childhood, giving special attention to obesity. (pp. 291–293) 4. Identify factors that contribute to illness during the school years, and describe ways to reduce these health problems. (pp. 293–294) 5. Describe changes in unintentional injuries in middle childhood. (p. 294) 6. Cite major changes in motor development and play during middle childhood, including sex differences and the importance of physical education. (pp. 294–299) 7. Describe major characteristics of concrete operational thought. (pp. 299–301) 8. Discuss follow-up research on concrete operational thought, noting the importance of culture and schooling.(pp. 301–302) 9. Cite basic changes in information processing and describe the development of attention and memory in middle childhood. (pp. 303–305) 10. Describe the school-age child’s theory of mind, noting the importance of mental inferences and understanding of false belief and capacity to engage in self-regulation. (pp. 306–307) 11. Discuss applications of information processing to academic learning, including current controversies in teaching reading and mathematics to elementary school children. (pp. 307–309) 12. Describe major approaches to defining and measuring intelligence. (pp. 309–310) 13. Summarize Sternberg’s triarchic theory and Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, noting how these theories explain the limitations of current intelligence tests in assessing the diversity of human intelligence. (pp. 310–312) 14. Describe evidence indicating that both heredity and environment contribute to intelligence. (pp. 312–317) 15. Summarize findings on emotional intelligence, including implications for the classroom. (p. 313) 16. Describe change s in school-age children’s vocabulary, grammar, and pragmatics, and cite advantages of bilingualism. (pp. 316–319) 17. Explain the impact of class size and educational philosophies on children’s motivation and academic achievement. (pp. 319–321) 18. Discuss the role of teacher-student interaction and grouping practices in academic achievement. (pp. 321–322) 19. Explain the conditions that contribute to successful placement of children with mild mental retardation and learning disabilities in regular classrooms. (p. 322) 20. Describe the characteristics of gifted children, including creativity and talent, and current efforts to meet their educational needs. (pp. 323–324) 21. Compare the academic achievement of North American children with children in other industrialized nations. (pp. 324–325) Chapter 10 1. Describe Erikson’s stage of industry versus inferiority, noting major personality changes in middle childhood. (p. 330) 2. Describe school-age children’s self-concept and self-esteem, and discuss factors that affect their achievement-related attributions. (pp. 330–334) 3. Cite changes in understanding and expression of emotion in middle childhood, including the importance of problem-centered coping and emotion-centered coping for managing emotion. (pp. 335–336) 4. Trace the development of perspective taking in middle childhood, and discuss the relationship between perspective taking and social skills. (pp. 336–337) 5. Describe changes in moral understanding during middle childhood, and note the extent to which children hold racial and ethnic biases. (pp. 337–339) 6. Summarize changes in peer sociability during middle childhood, including characteristics of peer groups and friendships. (pp. 339–341) 7. Describe four categories of peer acceptance, noting how each is related to social behavior, and discuss ways to help rejected children. (pp. 341–342, 343) 8. Describe changes in gender-stereotyped beliefs and gender identity during middle childhood, including sex differences and cultural influences. (pp. 342–345) 9. Discuss changes in parent–child communication and sibling relationships in middle childhood, and describe the adjustment of only children. (pp. 345–346) 10. Discuss factors that influence children’s adjustment to di vorce and blended families, highlighting the importance of parent and child characteristics, as well as social supports within the family and surrounding community. (pp. 347–350) 11. Explain how maternal employment and life in dual-earner families affect school-age children, noting the influence of social supports within the family and surrounding community, including child care for school-age children. (pp. 350–351) 12. Cite common fears and anxieties in middle childhood, with particular attention to school phobia. (pp. 352, 353) 13. Discuss factors related to child sexual abuse and its consequences for children’s development. (pp. 352–354, 355) 14. Cite factors that foster resilience in middle childhood. (p. 354) Chapter 11 1. Discuss changing conceptions of adolescence over the past century. (pp. 362–363) 2. Describe pubertal changes in body size, proportions, sleep patterns, motor performance, and sexual maturity. (pp. 363–366) 3. Cite factors that influence the timing of puberty. (pp. 366–367) 4. Describe brain development in adolescence. (pp. 367–368) 5. Discuss adolescents’ reactions to the physical changes of puberty, including sex differences, and describe the influence of family and culture. (pp. 368–370) 6. Discuss the impact of pubertal timing on adolescent adjustment, noting sex differences. (pp. 370–371) 7. Describe the nutritional needs of adolescents, and cite factors that contribute to serious eating disorders. (pp. 371–373) 8. Discuss social and cultural influences on adolescent sexual attitudes and behavior. (pp. 373–376) 9. Describe factors involved in the development of gay, lesbian, and bisexual orientations, and discuss the unique adjustment problems of these youths. (pp. 376, 377) 10. Discuss factors related to sexually transmitted diseases and to teenage pregnancy and parenthood, including interventions for adolescent parents. (pp. 376, 378–380) 11. Cite personal and social factors that contribute to adolescent substance use and abuse, and describe prevention and treatment programs. (pp. 380–382) 12. Describe the major characteristics of formal operational thought. (pp. 382–384) 13. Discuss recent research on formal operational thought and its implications for the accuracy of Piaget’s formal operat ional stage. (pp. 384–385) 14. Explain how information-processing researchers account for cognitive change in adolescence, emphasizing the development of scientific reasoning. (pp. 385–386) 15. Summarize cognitive and behavioral consequences of adolescents’ newfound capacity for advanced thinking. (pp. 386–388) 16. Note sex differences in mental abilities at adolescence, along with biological and environmental factors that influence them. (pp. 389–390, 391) 17. Discuss the impact of school transitions on adolescent adjustment, and cite ways to ease the strain of these changes. (pp. 390, 392–393) 18. Discuss family, peer, school, and employment influences on academic achievement during adolescence. (pp. 393–395) 19. Describe personal, family, and school factors related to dropping out, and cite ways to prevent early school leaving. (pp. 396–397) Chapter 12 1. Discuss Erikson’s theory of identity development. (p. 402) 2. Describe changes in self-concept and self-esteem during adolescence. (pp. 402–403) 3. Describe the four identity statuses, the adjustment outcomes of each status, and factors that promote identity development. (pp. 403–406) 4. Discuss Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, and evaluate its accuracy. (pp. 407–409) 5. Summarize research on Gilligan’s claim that Kohlberg’s theory underestimated the moral maturity of females. (pp. 409–410) 6. Describe influences on moral reasoning and its relationship to moral behavior. (pp. 410–414) 7. Explain why early adolescence is a period of gender intensification, and cite factors that promote the development of an androgynous gender identity. (pp. 414–415) 8. Discuss changes in parent–child and sibling relationships during adolescence. (pp. 415–417) 9. Describe adolescent friendships, peer groups, and dating relationships and their consequences for development. (pp. 417–421) 10. Discuss conformity to peer pressure in adolescence, noting the importance of authoritative child rearing. (p. 421) 11. Discuss factors related to adolescent depression and suicide, along with approaches for prevention and treatment. (pp. 421–423) 12. Summarize factors related to delinquency, and describe strategies for prevention and treatment. (pp. 423–426) Chapter 13 1. Describe current theories of biological aging, including those at the level of DNA and body cells, and those at the level of organs and tissues. (pp. 432–434) 2. Describe the physical changes of aging, paying special attention to the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, motor performance, the immune system, and reproductive capacity. (pp. 434–438) 3. Describe the impact of SES, nutrition, obesity, and exercise on health in adulthood. (pp. 438–444) 4. Describe trends in substance abuse in early adulthood, and discuss the health risks of each. (pp. 444–445) 5. Summarize sexual attitudes and behaviors in young adults, including sexual orientation, sexually transmitted diseases, sexual coercion, and premenstrual syndrome. (pp. 445–449) 6. Explain how psychological stress affects health. (pp. 449–451) 7. Summarize prominent theories on the restructuring of thought in adulthood, including those of Perry and Labouvie-Vief. (pp. 451–453) 8. Discuss the development of expertise and creativity in adulthood. (pp. 453–454) 9. Describe the impact of a college education on young people’s lives, and discuss the problem of dropping out.(pp. 454–455) 10. Trace the development of vocational choice, and note factors that influence it. (pp. 455–458) 11. Discuss vocational preparation of non-college-bound young adults, including the challenges these individuals face.(pp. 458–459) Chapter 14 1. Define emerging adulthood, and explain how cultural change has contributed to the emergence of this period. (pp. 464–466) 2. Describe Erikson’s stage of intimacy versus isolation, noting personality changes that take place during early adulthood. (pp. 468–469) 3. Summarize Levinson’s and Vaillant’s psychosocial theories of adult personality development, including how they apply to both men’s and women’s lives and their limitations. (pp. 469–471) 4. Describe the social clock and how it relates to adjustment in adulthood. (p. 471) 5. Discuss factors that affect mate selection, and explain the role of romantic love in young adults’ quest for intimacy. (pp. 472, 474) 6. Explain how culture influences the experience of love. (p. 475) 7. Cite characteristics of adult friendships and sibling relationships, including differences between same-sex, other-sex, and sibling friendships. (pp. 475–476) 8. Cite factors that inf luence loneliness, and explain the role of loneliness in adult development. (pp. 476–477) 9. Trace phases of the family life cycle that are prominent in early adulthood, noting factors that influence these phases. (pp. 478–485) 10. Discuss the diversity of adult lifestyles, focusing on singlehood, cohabitation, and childlessness. (pp. 486–488) 11. Discuss trends in divorce and remarriage, along with factors that contribute to them. (pp. 488–489) 12. Summarize challenges associated with variant styles of parenthood, including stepparents, never-married single parents, and gay and lesbian parents. (pp. 489–491) 13. Describe patterns of career development, and cite difficulties faced by women, ethnic minorities, and couples seeking to combine work and family. (pp. 491–495) Chapter 15 1. Describe the physical changes of middle adulthood, paying special attention to vision, hearing, the skin, muscle–fat makeup, and the skeleton. (pp. 502–504, 505) 2. Summarize reproductive changes experienced by middle-aged men and women, and discuss the symptoms of menopause, the benefits and risks of hormone therapy, and women’s psychological reactions to menopause. (pp. 504, 506–509) 3. Discuss sexuality in middle adulthood. (p. 509) 4. Discuss cancer, cardiovascular disease, and osteoporosis, noting sex differences, risk factors, and interventions. (pp. 509–513) 5. Explain how hostility and anger affect health. (pp. 513–514) 6. Discuss the benefits of stress management, exercise, and an optimistic outlook in adapting to the physical challenges of midlife. (pp. 514–517) 7. Explain the double standard of aging. (p. 517) 8. Describe changes in crystallized and fluid intelligence during middle adulthood, and discuss individual and group differences in intellectual development. (pp. 518–520) 9. Describe changes in information processing in midlife, paying special attention to speed of processing, attention, and memory. (pp. 520–523) 10. Discuss the development of practical problem solving, expertise, and creativity in middle adulthood. (pp. 523–525) 11. Describe the relationship between vocational life and cognitive development. (pp. 525–526) 12. Discuss the challenges of adult learners, ways to support returning students, and benefits of earning a degree in midlife. (pp. 526–527) Chapter 16 1. Describe Erikson’s stage of generativity versus stagnation, noting major personality changes of middle adulthood and related research findings. (pp. 532–535) 2. Discuss Levinson’s and Vaillant’s views of psychosocial development in middle adulthood, noting gender similarities and differences. (pp. 535–536) 3. Summarize research examining the question of whether most middle-aged adults experience a midlife crisis.(pp. 536–537) 4. Describe stability and change in self-concept and personality in middle adulthood. (pp. 538–539) 5. Describe changes in gender identity in midlife. (pp. 540–542) 6. Discuss stability and change in the â€Å"big five† personality traits in adulthood. (pp. 542–543) 7. Describe the middle adulthood phase of the family life cycle, and discuss midlife marital relationships and relationships with adult children, grandchildren, and aging parents. (pp. 543–551) 8. Describe midlife sibling relationships and friendships. (pp. 551–553) 9. Discuss job satisfaction and career development in middle adulthood, paying special attention to gender differences and experiences of ethnic minorities. (pp. 553–555) 10. Describe career change and unemployment in middle adulthood. (p. 556) 11. Discuss the importance of planning for retirement, noting various issues that middle-aged adults should address. (pp. 556–557) Chapter 17 1. Distinguish between chronological age and functional age, and discuss changes in life expectancy over the past century. (pp. 564–566, 568–569) 2. Explain age-related changes in the nervous system during late adulthood. (pp. 566–567) 3. Summarize changes in sensory functioning during late adulthood, including vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. (pp. 567–570) 4. Describe cardiovascular, respiratory, and immune system changes in late adulthood. (pp. 570–571) 5. Discuss sleep difficulties in late adulthood. (pp. 571–572) 6. Summarize changes in physical health and mobility in late adulthood, including elders’ adaptation to the physical changes, and reactions to stereotypes of aging. (pp. 572–575, 576) 7. Discuss health and fitness in late life, paying special attention to nutrition, exercise, and sexuality. (pp. 575–579) 8. Discuss common physical disabilities in late adulthood, with special attention to arthritis, a dult-onset diabetes, and unintentional injuries. (pp. 580–582) 9. Describe mental disabilities common in late adulthood, including Alzheimer’s disease, cerebrovascular dementia, and misdiagnosed and reversible dementia. (pp. 582–588) 10. Discuss health-care issues that affect senior citizens. (pp. 589–590) 11. Describe changes in crystallized and fluid abilities in late adulthood, and explain how older adults can make the most of their cognitive resources. (pp. 590–591) 12. Summarize memory changes in late life, including implicit, associative, remote, and prospective memories. (pp. 591–594) 13. Discuss changes in language processing in late adulthood. (pp. 594–595) 14. Explain how problem solving changes in late life. (p. 595) 15. Discuss the capacities that contribute to wisdom, noting how it is affected by age and life experience. (pp. 595–596) 16. Discuss factors related to cognitive change in late adulthood. (pp. 596â€⠀œ597) Chapter 18 1. Describe Erikson’s stage of ego integrity versus despair. (p. 604) 2. Discuss Peck’s tasks of ego integrity, Joan Erikson’s gerotranscendence, and Labouvie-Vief’s emotional expertise.(pp. 604–605) 3. Describe the functions of reminiscence and life review in older adults’ lives. (pp. 606, 607) 4. Summarize stability and change in self-concept and personality in late adulthood. (pp. 606–608) 5. Discuss spirituality and religiosity in late adulthood. (pp. 608–609) 6. Discuss contextual influences on psychological well-being as older adults respond to increased dependency, declining health, and negative life changes. (pp. 609–611, 612) 7. Summarize the role of social support and social interaction in promoting physical health and psychological well-being in late adulthood. (p. 611) 8. Describe social theories of aging, including disengagement theory, activity theory, continuity theory, and socioemotional selectivity theory . (pp. 612–615, 616) 9. Describe changes in social relationships in late adulthood, including marriage, gay and lesbian partnerships, divorce, remarriage, cohabitation, and widowhood, and discuss never-married, childless older adults. (pp. 619–623) 10. Explain how sibling relationships and friendships change in late life. (pp. 624–625) 11. Describe older adults’ relationships with adult children, adult grandchildren, and great-grandchildren. (pp. 625–626) 12. Summarize elder maltreatment, including risk factors and strategies for prevention. (pp. 627–628) 13. Discuss the decision to retire, adjustment to retirement, and involvement in leisure and volunteer activities. (pp. 628–632) 14. Discuss the meaning of optimal aging. (pp. 632–633) Chapter 19 1. Describe the physical changes of dying, along with their implications for defining death and the meaning of death with dignity. (pp. 640–642) 2. Discuss age-related changes in conception of and attitudes toward death, including ways to enhance child and adolescent understanding. (pp. 642–644) 3. Cite factors that influence death anxiety, including personal and cultural variables that contribute to the fear of death. (p. 643) 4. Describe and evaluate Kà ¼bler-Ross’s theory of typical responses to dying, citing factors that influence dying patients’ responses. (pp. 647–648) 5. Evaluate the extent to which homes, hospitals, and the hospice approach meet the needs of dying people and their families. (pp. 650–653) 6. Discuss controversies surrounding euthanasia and assisted suicide. (pp. 654–659) 7. Describe bereavement and the phases of grieving, indicating factors that underlie individual variations in grief responses. (pp. 659–660) 8. Explain the concept of bereavement overload, and describe bereavement interventions. (pp. 663, 665) 9. Explain how death education can help people cope with death more effectively. (p. 665)

Psychological Distresses in International Students

Psychological Distresses in International Students Australia is an inspired destination for thousands of Indian sojourners. An Australian study was conducted to investigate the factors contributing the psychological distresses in international students in Australia. The study assessed the manner of manifestation of the psychological distress among these students. The study included 86 students who were to fill a nine self-reported questionnaire. Results revealed that worry manifested by obsessive–compulsiveness, reflection and perfectionist tendencies were the most common manifestations of psychological distress. Inability to cope was the only major factor contributing the distress. The implications of the study underscored the need for assessment of students’ mental health issues and the need for designing of suitable intervention programs.1 Over the decades, researchers have identified myriad of issues faced by expatriates during their adjustment processes abroad. The earliest study on sojourner adjustment was conducted in the year 1951 by Forstat. The researcher investigated the various adjustment problems pertaining to 182 international students enrolled in an American university. The results concluded that dating, financial issue, the English language, the academic system, housing, and food were the most common adjustment issues among the international students .2 Another earlier study was conducted by Sharma which analyzed adjustment problems among sojourners in universities in North Carolina. The problems were categorized as academic, personal, and social which were perceived by international students. The major academic problems included perceiving lectures, involvement in class modules, or working on oral and written reports. The personal problems included housing, nostalgia, financial independence, groceries. Social problems included adjusting the American customs, making contacts, and acceptance by social groups. 3 During the year 2010, the Australian authorities raised the minimum English language score (IELTS score) to 7 from 6.5. This caused havoc to many sojourners especially the nurses. The nurses, estimated to number of 400, were from India, China,  Thailand and  Philippines respectively and were faced with  deportation  from  Australia  because of the lack of English proficiency. These nurses, individually, had paid AUD 25,000/- to be a registered nurse in Australia but were now faced with no registration and no job.4 In a recent research conducted by Expat Forum on behalf of  Barclays International Banking regarding challenges faced by sojourners in Australia. The census findings highlightedloneliness (22.41%), cost of living (18.97%), cultural differences (8.62%), relationship problems (6.90%), healthcare (3.45%) and other issues (39.66%) as the major challenges faced by sojourners in Australia. It was found out that Younger generation expatriates had minor problems in learning the local language, but had a harder time making friends and settling in. On the contrary, it was also found that aged expatriates had a harder time learning the local language and had lesser difficulties in arranging for an accomodation.5 Proficiency of the English language is a gateway to cultural adjustment. In 2013, the Deccan Herald newspaper reported an incident at Sydney Adventist Hospital in Australia. The Indian male nurse was found guilty of giving dishwashing powder to an elderly patient. The nurse was alleged of giving medication from a bottle that was labeled as heart pills. Later it was found out by the Australian authorities that the bottle contained detergent powder and not heart pills. The nurse’s registration was cancelled by the Australian registration board. The board said the nurse could have confused about the bottle contents due to his poor English proficiency.6 A project was initiated by the Prince of Wales hospital to help the overseas nurses during their initial phase of work in Australia. The intention of the project was to help nurses with orientation information. The project included literature review, survey, focus groups interviews, committee-meeting with senior staff, and development of a launch strategy for the new overseas nurses in their hospital. During their survey and committee meetings, it was found out that all overseas nurses faced career and lifestyle difficulties, loneliness and homesickness as a major problem. 7 A study investigated the psychological distress among 280 Muslims migrants living in Brisbane, Australia. The Muslim participants were asked to fill questionnaires in English or Arabic language. The study results indicated that participants’ psychological distress was affected by their marital and visa statuses. it was also found that psychological distress was assumed by the perceived difficulties in English language, lack of community support, and inclination to use emotional and avoidance coping.8 A study was conducted to find out the similarity and dissimilarities in the cross-cultural adjustment among expatriates. The Q method and interviews were used for the study to assess factors that helped and hindered expatriates during their first year in the country. Q factor analysis identified three types of adjustment patterns among participants. The first type of international students identified their social and communication skills as the most helpful factors, and was more likely to report homesickness. The second group of participants preferred to seek help from their own countrymen when experiencing difficulty, and considered insufficient English skills their biggest barrier. International students in the third type thought that their commitment to study and their immediate family played the most helpful roles, and they reported more financial difficulties. Besides these differences, the three types of international students also encountered similar barriers such as cultural differences, financial difficulty, discrimination, and impractical expectations.9 A systematic review of literature was conducted in 2011 to assess the adjustment issues of international students enrolled in American colleges and universities. The review was conducted in three online databases—PsycINFO, ProQuest Education Journals, and ProQuest Psychology Journals. The Search was limited to date range (1991-2010), full text documents, and peer-reviewed journals. The findings of the study indicated that English fluency, social support, length of stay in the U.S., perceived discrimination or prejudice, establishing relationships with Americans, and homesickness were the most significant variables related to the adjustment of international students.10 The Australian health care follows most of its health care policies and regimens from the UK health care policies. Moreover, over the years the UK trained Indian nurses have been found to be immigrating to Australia due to monetary benefits. A qualitative research was done to understand the experience of overseas nurses during their registration process at UK. A total 20 overseas nurses was interviewed for the study. All participants were from India. All the nurses were registered nurses in India and had clinical experience of 2-14 years in various areas of specialties. From the verbatim of the nurses, theoretical constructs were identified. It also contained the difficulties the overseas nurses experienced inorder to get their registration in the UK. The constructs identified in the study were communication issues, cross-cultural difference, role definition, feelings of self-worth.11 Registered Nurses and Midwives from around the world are facing great difficulty to find job sponsorship in Australia. Nadeine Myer, journalist working for expatriate nurses in Australia, reported an incident of an Indian Registered Nurse who came to Australia to work as an RN with the view to find job sponsorship as soon as she completed her registration. Unfortunately, she soon found out that selected hospitals in Australia were not interested in sponsoring foreign nurses with general clinical experience. After receiving her registration in Queensland, she had only days to find a sponsor before her visa expired. She did acquire any job and had to return to her country, crushed that her dream was now over. 12